Select the first letter of the word you
are seeking from the list above
to jump to the appropriate section of the glossary or scroll down to it
acculturation
the
process by which a culture is transformed due to the massive adoption of
cultural traits from another society--it is what happens to a culture
when alien traits diffuse
in on a large scale and substantially replace traditional cultural
patterns. See
transculturation.
acephalous
society
a society in
which political power is diffused to the degree that there are no
institutionalized political leadership roles such as chiefs and
kings. Bands and tribes are acephalous. Most foragers and simple
horticulturalists have highly egalitarian, acephalous societies.
The word "acephalous" is Greek for "without a head."
achieved status
a status
that is acquired by doing something. For instance, someone acquires a
criminal status by committing a crime. Likewise, the status of
mother is attained by having a baby. See
ascribed status.
-
actual behavior
- what people really do in their
lives rather than what they think they are doing or what they believe they
should be doing. In most societies there is a discrepancy between
these three kinds of behavior. It is important for anthropologists
to distinguish between actual, believed, and ideal behavior when they learn about another society and its
culture.
-
adaptive mechanism
- a behavior, strategy, or
technique for obtaining food and surviving in a particular environment.
Successful adaptive mechanisms provide
a selective advantage in the competition for survival with other life
forms. For humans, the most important adaptive mechanism is
culture.
affinity
a kinship
link created by marriage, such as the bond between a man and his
wife and her family (in-laws). People who have an affinity
relationship with each other are "affines"
.
See consanguinity.
affirmative action
a program or policy intended to correct the
effects of past discrimination in employment, education, housing,
etc. Usually affirmative action in the United States includes
out-reach programs, hiring goals, set-asides, and/or extra opportunities for members of
underrepresented minorities.
age grades
age-based categories of people recognized by a
culture. In North America, for example, we generally label people as
children, teenagers, adults, middle aged, and elderly or senior
citizens. See age sets.
age sets
age
grades that are clearly recognized in a culture as distinct
identifiable groups of people. They consist of people of similar age
and usually of the same gender who share a common identity and maintain
close ties throughout their lives. They also pass through age-related
statuses together as a group. The transition between these
statuses is usually marked by
a rite of passage.
agnatic
descent
ambilineal
descent
a
form of
cognatic
descent in which individuals can select to trace descent
either matrilineally or
patrilineally.
The decision may be made
each generation based on the
relative wealth and/or importance of the father's and the mother's
family lines.
-
ambilocal
residence
- the
residence pattern in which a newly married couple has the choice
of living with or near the groom's or the bride's family.
ancestor focused kindred
a
kindred in which the
person to whom all members trace their kinship ties is dead. An
example would be the descendants of a well
known pioneer family. It is rare for a kindred to continue
functioning as an effective kin group after the death of the
individual who was its focus. This usually occurs only when the
ancestor was historically important.
ancestral spirits
souls
or ghosts of ancestors. A belief in ancestral spirits is consistent
with the widespread belief that humans have at least two parts--a
physical body and some kind of non-physical spirit. The spirit portion
is generally believed to be freed from the body by death and continues
to exist. Ancestral spirits are often seen as retaining an active
interest and even membership in their family and society.
-
androgynous
- the
characteristic of having a blend of both masculine and feminine
personality characteristics but not strongly either one.
animatism
- a
belief in a supernatural power not part of supernatural beings.
For those who hold this belief, the power is usually impersonal,
unseen, and potentially everywhere. It is neither good nor
evil, but it can be
powerful and dangerous if misused.
animism
- a
belief that natural objects are animated by
spirits. This belief can
take diverse forms. Things in nature may all have within them
different spirits--each rock, tree, and cloud may have its own
unique spirit. In contrast, all things in nature may be thought of
as having the same spirit. In both forms of animism, the spirits
are thought of as having identifiable personalities and other
characteristics such as gender.
anomie
- a
feeling of alienation and isolation from all other people, including
family and friends.
-
anthropology
the broad
scientific study of human culture and biology. Anthropologists are
interested in what it is to be human in all of our many different
societies around the world today and in the past. In North American
universities, the study of anthropology is usually divided into four main
sub-disciplines: cultural anthropology,
physical
anthropology, archaeology,
and linguistics.
-
anticipatory sororate
- a
cultural pattern in which some sexual permissiveness is allowed
between a man and his wife's sister in anticipation of a future
marriage between them. This is usually associated with sororal
polygyny.
anti-miscegenation
laws
laws prohibiting sexual intercourse and
marriage between people of different "races".
applied anthropology
the
branch of anthropology oriented towards using anthropological knowledge
for practical purposes. The work of most applied anthropologists has
the goal of helping small indigenous societies adjust to the massive
acculturation
pressures that they are now experiencing without their suffering
culture death and
genocide.
aquatic
foraging
a
specialized subsistence
pattern that concentrates on fish and/or marine mammal hunting. Aquatic
foraging is usually a far more reliable and productive strategy for
obtaining food than the diversified hunting and gathering of most foragers
who live away from the coasts and major rivers. The most well known aquatic
foragers lived on the Northwest Coast of North America from the Klamath
River of California to the Aleutian Islands of Alaska. These societies
specialized in salmon fishing along the rivers and hunting seals and whales
off the coast.
The word "aquatic" is derived from the Latin word aqua, meaning water.
-
archaeology
the systematic
study of the material remains of human behavior in the past.
Archaeologists reconstruct the prehistory and early history of societies
and their cultures through an examination and interpretation of such
things as house foundations, broken tools, and food refuse.
arranged marriage
a
marriage partner selection process in which the future bride and
groom usually do not participate actively in the decision.
Marriages are commonly arranged by parents or their agents when
the marriages are seen as principally uniting two families
rather than just husband and wife. There is also often the
rationalization that teenagers and young adults are too
inexperienced to make a wise mate selection. The tradition of
arranged marriages has been dramatically undermined whenever
romantic love becomes a popular notion in a society.
ascribed status
a status
that is the result of being born into a particular family or being born
male or female. Being a prince by birth or being the first of four
children in a family are ascribed statuses. See
achieved status.
assimilation
the absorption of an individual
or minority group of people into another society or group. This
is achieved by learning and adopting the cultural traditions of
the society to which assimilation occurs. It is also often
hastened by intermarriage and de-emphasizing cultural and or
biological differences.
-
avunculocal
residence
- the
residence pattern in which a newly married couple moves in with
or near the groom's maternal uncle's house. This is strongly
associated with
matrilineal
descent and occurs when men obtain statuses, jobs, or
prerogatives from their nearest elder matrilineal male relative.
balanced reciprocity
an economic exchange in which there is an explicit
expectation of immediate return. Simple barter or supermarket purchases
involve this understanding. See
reciprocity.
-
band
- the
level of political integration in which a society consists
only of an association of families living together. Bands are
loosely allied by marriage,
descent, friendship,
and common interest. The primary integrating mechanism is
kinship ties. There
is no economic class differentiation. All adults of the same
gender are more or less equal as far as community decision
making is concerned. However, some individuals in a band may
stand out for their skills and knowledge. These often are the
people who have the best memories, are the best hunters, most
successful curers, most gifted speakers, etc. Such people
become informal leaders. Most often they are given authority by
community consensus arrived at through casual discussion without
the need for a formal vote. Leaders generally have temporary
political power at best, and they do not have any significant
authority relative to other adults within their band.
Subsequently, bands are essentially
acephalous
societies. The total number of people within these societies
rarely exceeds a few dozen. Bands are found among
foraging societies.
barter
- trading goods and services directly for other
goods and services without the use of money as a medium of
exchange. See dumb
barter.
-
believed behavior
- what people honestly believe that
they are doing in their lives rather than what they think they should be
doing or what they actually are doing. In most societies there is a
discrepancy between these three kinds of behavior.
It is important for anthropologists to distinguish between
actual, believed, and ideal behavior when they learn about another society and its
culture.
berdache
bewitching
using
magical acts and/or the assistance of supernatural beings to cause
something to occur. Bewitching is an integral part of
witchcraft.
-
bilateral
descent
- the
cognatic
pattern of descent in which every biological ancestor and descendant
is a socially recognized relative. Everyone is a member of both
his or her father's and mother's families. This is not the same
as bilineal
descent.
-
bilineal
descent
- the
cognatic
pattern of descent in which an individual is both a
member of his mother's matrilineage and his father's
patrilineage. Also known as "double descent."
This is not the same as
bilateral
descent.
bisexual
an
individual who is sexually and/or emotionally attracted by members
of the same and the opposite gender. See
heterosexual and
homosexual.
Black English
the social
dialect spoken by many African Americans. It also known as Ebonics
.
-
biological anthropology
body language
-
boundary maintenance
(in
reference to ethnic groups)
- reinforcing an ethnic group's unity and
distinctness by emphasizing the traits that set its members
apart from others, rather than what they share in common with
them.
bound morpheme
a
morpheme that has meaning
but can not stand alone. The prefix dis in
the English word dislike is an example.
bride price
things of
high value given by a groom to his bride's father. It is a way of
showing respect for the bride and her parents. At the same time, it
is a compensation for the bride's family for the loss of her
economic services. It is also a way of validating the groom's right
to future offspring. Bride price is most common among polygynous,
small-scale, patrilineal societies--especially in sub-Saharan Africa
and among Native Americans. Bride price is also referred to as
"bride wealth" and "progeny price."
See dowry.
bride service
- work or
services done by a groom for his wife's family instead of paying a
bride price. Bride
service is usually for a set period of time, often years. It is a
common practice in societies that have little material wealth and
strong rules requiring sharing that prevent the accumulation of
wealth.
-
bureaucracy
- an administrative system that divides
governing tasks into specific categories carried out by
different individuals and/or departments. Members of a
bureaucracy are referred to as bureaucrats.
-
caste
an
individual's rigidly ascribed, or inherited, status within society.
The most extensive caste system is in India where it is
associated strongly with the Hindu religion.
There are 4 major Indian
castes originally based on vocation: the
Brahmans (or Hindu priests), warriors, farmers, and shop keepers.
The castes are all ranked relative to each other with the Brahmans
being at the top. In addition, there are people in India who are
outside of the caste system. These outcasts are at the bottom of
society. One's caste is extremely important in India. People
are careful to marry within their own caste and to avoid physical
contact with members of lower castes because of the danger of
pollution.
cereals
the edible seeds of grasses. The
economically most important cereals include wheat, rice, and corn
(maize), oats, rye, millet, and sorghum. These grains provide the
bulk of the calories consumed by people in the world today.
chiefdom
the
level of political integration in which a society has a more or
less permanent political leader (i.e., a chief) but no
bureaucracy of
professional administrators. The chief provides direction and
authority for the society as a whole. Sometimes there is an
advisory council as well. In a few of the more complex chiefdoms in
Africa and Hawaii, there have been paramount chiefs and lesser
chiefs who perform some administrative functions. Chiefs and their
families generally have a higher standard of living than ordinary
people within their society. What makes this possible is that
chiefs usually perform a society wide economic
redistribution
function that is cloaked in the guise of ritual gift giving. This
essentially siphons off surplus agricultural products from farmers
and then redistributes them throughout the society. In the process,
a small amount is held back in order to support the chief's somewhat
more lavish lifestyle. The ritualized redistribution of surplus
food and other commodities in chiefdoms is, in a sense, the
rudimentary beginnings of a taxation system. It is tolerated by
people because of the economic advantages that it can provide in
addition to social stability. The larger territorial size of
chiefdoms often encompasses diverse environmental zones with
somewhat different products. The redistribution of agricultural
surpluses can serve as a method of providing greater food variety
for the populace as a whole. Chiefdoms commonly have a population
of tens of thousands of farmers. The large population size
generally means that the people have less in common than do those in
the smaller societies of bands
and tribes. Disputes
inevitably arise that cannot be settled by informal means based on
kinship and friendship. A chief usually functions as an arbitrator
and judge in these cases.
circumcision
removing all or part of the foreskin of the
penis. This surgery is usually done with a knife as part of a
rite of passage
marking the transition from childhood to adulthood for boys.
See subincision.
clan
-
a
group of people who claim unilineal descent from the same ancestor but who cannot specify all of
the actual links. The ancestor is genealogically so remote that he or she
is often thought of as a mythical being, animal, or plant. Clans usually
consist of a number of related unilineages. See
totem.
class
a group of people thought of as a unit because they are similar in terms of
social and/or economic factors. In America, for instance, a class
distinction is commonly made between
"white collar" well paid office workers and lower paid
"blue collar" factory workers and manual laborers.
In state level societies of the past, the most
important class distinction was between the ruling elite and the
commoners. Bands, tribes, and early chiefdoms did not have classes,
though individuals were often ranked relative to each other.
-
clitoridectomy
- cutting off all or part of the clitoris
and sometime all or part of the labia. This surgery is usually
done as part of a
rite of passage
marking the transition from childhood to adulthood for girls.
In Western Nations, clitoridectomy is often
referred to as "genital mutilation."
See infibulation.
-
cognatic
descent
- tracing kinship through
both the mother's and the father's ancestors
to some degree. Cognatic descent occurs in four forms:
ambilineal,
bilineal,
parallel,
and bilateral
descent.
-
collateral
relative
- uncles, aunts, cousins, nephews, nieces
and other consanguinal kinsmen beyond ego's main line of
descent.
colonial powers
a term referring mostly to the Western
European nations that carved out colonies in Africa, Asia, Central
and South America, and the Pacific during the 18th through the early
20th centuries. The U.S., Russia, and Japan also acquired colonial
empires in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
commerce
large-scale
buying and selling of goods and services within and between societies
that usually have market
economies.
common law
a law
that has evolved over time and is part of the cultural tradition
rather than being created by enactment in legislatures or by
rulers. In
large-scale societies, many laws derive from old common laws but
are now formalized by being written down in penal codes. Virtually
all laws in
small-scale societies are unwritten common laws.
-
consanguinity
- a socially recognized biological
descent link, such
as between a woman and her father, aunt, or daughter.
Individuals who have a consanguinity relationship are "consanguines"
to each other. Consanguinity literally means "with the
blood", reflecting the old incorrect assumption that biological
inheritance is passed on through blood rather than DNA. See
affinity.
-
contagious magic
-
magic that is based on the principle that things or persons once in
contact can afterward influence each other. In other words, there
is a permanent relationship between an individual and any part of
his or her body. As a consequence, believers must take special
precautions with their hair, fingernails, teeth, clothes, and
feces. If anyone obtained these objects, magic could be performed
on them which would cause the person they came from to be affected.
-
core values
- the fundamental values that provide the
basis for social behavior in society. They are what people
believe is desirable or offensive, appropriate or inappropriate,
and correct or incorrect.
creole
- a
pidgin language that has
become the mother tongue of a population. In Haiti, for example, a
French-African pidgin became the creole language that is spoken in that
nation today by the majority of the population as their principle or
only language.
crime
- a deviation from the social norm that is
of such magnitude as to go beyond what would be considered bad
manners or odd behavior. Societies respond to such
exceptionally deviant actions by creating laws to curb and
sometimes punish them. There is no universal agreement between
the societies of the world about what constitutes criminal
behavior or how it should be dealt with. Sufficient
ethnographic
data have been collected over the last century to show that
societies with different kinds of economies have radically
different sorts of laws and legal concerns. See
tort.
-
cross cousin
- one's father's sister's children or
mother's brother's children. The gender of the children is not
relevant in making this distinction. See
parallel cousin.
-
cross dressing
-
Crow
naming system
- a
matrilineally based kin naming system in which siblings and
parallel cousins
of the same gender are given the same term of reference (5 =
male and 6 = female) as are mother and mother's sister (2).
Other people in ego's father's
matrilineage
are lumped across generations (1 = male and 3 = female),
reflecting the comparative unimportance of the father's side of
the family in societies using the Crow system.
-
-
cult
- a
devoted religious group, often living together in a community with a
charismatic prophet
leader. Cults are generally considered to be potentially dangerous,
unorthodox, extremist groups by the dominant religious organizations
in a society.
-
cultural anthropology
the study of contemporary and recent historical
cultures all over the world. The focus is on social organization,
culture change, economic and political systems, and religion.
Cultural anthropology is also referred to as social or sociocultural anthropology.
-
cultural relativity
- suspending one's
ethnocentric judgments
in order to understand and appreciate another culture.
Anthropologists try to learn about and interpret the
various aspects of the culture they are studying in reference to that
culture rather than to their own. This provides a better
understanding of how such practices as polygamy and cannibalism can
function and even support other cultural traditions.
-
cultural universals
- cultural traits that
are shared by all of humanity collectively. Examples of such general
traits are communicating with a verbal language, using age and gender to
classify people, and raising children in some sort of family setting.
No matter where people live in the world, they share these universal
cultural traits. However, different cultures have developed their
own specific ways of carrying out or expressing these general traits.
-
culture
- the full range of learned
behavior patterns that are acquired by people as members of a society.
A culture is a complex, largely interconnected whole that consists of the knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs, skills, and
habits learned from parents and others in a society. Culture is the
primary adaptive
mechanism for humans.
culture bound syndrome
- a disease that has a very limited
distribution around the world due to the unique sets of
environmental circumstances and cultural practices that cause it to
occur. koro,
kuru, and
Widigo psychosis
are examples.
culture death
- the
complete disappearance of a culture as a result of the total
acculturation or the death of all of the people who shared it.
culture loss
- the
loss of cultural traits. As cultures change and acquire new traits,
old no longer useful or popular ones inevitably disappear. An
example of culture loss is the disappearance over time of certain
words and phrases in a language. In some cases, the words continue
to be used but acquire new, very different meanings. Culture loss
is accelerated during periods of
acculturation and
transculturation.
culture shock
- feelings of confusion, distress, and
sometimes depression that can result from the psychological stress
caused by the strain of rapidly adjusting to an alien culture. This
is a common phenomenon for travelers who are totally immersed in the
language and customs of another society, day and night, without a
break. It is largely due to being forced to constantly experience
new, unfamiliar cultural practices and traditions.
Transculturating
people also are likely to experience culture shock.
Until the new culture becomes familiar and comfortable, it is common
to have difficulty in communicating and to make frustrating
mistakes. This is usually compounded by feelings of
homesickness. These feelings can be emotionally debilitating.
However, culture shock eventually passes for most people.
curandero
a Latin
American folk curer. Cuanderos believe that they have
received a divine calling to their profession, and they may have
direct contact with the spirit world. They usually apprentice for
years under an older curandero. In Mexico and Central
America, there are curandero generalists and specialists.
Yerberos
are knowledgeable about herbs. Parteras
are midwifes. Sabadoros
are specialists in massaging patients. Curanderos may also
specialize in particular kinds of illness--e.g., curandero de
aire
,
etc. A
female curandero is a curandera
.
cyclical round of migrations
seasonal
migrations of foragers or pastoralists between different environments in
their territories. This often involves migrations that take people from
spring to summer camps and then to fall and finally winter ones. This cycle
of migrations that is repeated yearly is determined by the resources that
can be exploited at particular times of the year in different areas.
Carrying out such a round of migrations increases the amount of food that
can be obtained by a society. As a result a somewhat larger population can
be supported.
-
descent
socially recognized links between ancestors
and descendants, such as the bond between
children and their parents.
descriptive kin naming system
developed nation
(or society)
-
a nation or
society that is
relatively wealthy and usually industrialized. Most of
the people in developed nations
have adequate access to food,
electricity, fossil fuels, education, and medicine with the
consequence that their lives are materially more comfortable and
their life spans are
significantly longer than those in
underdeveloped nations. The United
States, Canada, most of Europe, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore,
Australia, and New Zealand are developed nations.
dialect
a variant of a
language. If it is
associated with a geographically isolated speech community, it is
referred to as a regional dialect. However, if it is spoken by a speech
community that is merely socially isolated, it is called a social
dialect.
-
diffusion
- the movement of cultural traits
and ideas from one society or ethnic group to another. While the
form of a trait may be transmitted to another society, the original
meaning may not. For instance, McDonald's hamburgers are
thought of as a cheap, quick meal in North America, but they are
generally considered to be a special occasion food in China.
diglossia
- the
phenomenon in which different dialects of a language or different
languages are spoken by a person in different social situations.
Diglossic
people may quickly switch back and forth between dialects or
languages, depending on the person they are talking to at the time.
This is the case with the educated elite of Haiti. They usually
speak standard French among themselves but use the Haitian French
creole language on the street dealing with poor uneducated Haitians.
Diglossia is also referred to as "code switching."
discrimination
the act of distinguishing differences between
people and showing favoritism or prejudicial rejection of them. See
prejudice and
stereotype.
-
disease vector
-
an intermediate
host and/or disease transmitting organism for a contagious
disease. Mosquitoes, fleas, lice, ticks, flies, and even snails
are common disease vectors.
distribution and exchange
(systems of)
the practices that are involved in getting the
goods and services produced by a society to its people. See systems of
production.
diversified foraging
a hunting
and gathering subsistence pattern in which there is not a concentration of efforts in
harvesting a small number of species. Rather, virtually all potential food
sources in the environment are exploited. Most
pedestrian foragers
take a diversified approach. In contrast,
aquatic and
equestrian foragers
are specialized. A diversified subsistence pattern has the advantage of
relative economic security if there are fluctuations in the weather, water
supply, or periodic die-offs of the food sources. The disadvantage is that
the total amount of food calories acquired is often less and the amount of
time required to secure them is greater compared to
specialized foraging.
divination
a
magical procedure by which the
cause of a particular event or the future is determined.
division of labor
referring
to the jobs that are normally assigned to people based on such things as
gender and age. In most foraging societies, large animal hunting is an
occupation of adult males, while domestic tasks, child rearing, and plant
food collecting are mostly adult female jobs. In the Western industrialized
nations today, the division of labor is based mostly on age, knowledge,
skills, and preference. Gender is often rejected as a criteria for job assignment in these
contemporary societies.
double descent
dowry
money, property, or other things of high
value given by a bride's family to the groom, ostensibly to
establish a new household. It is her share of the family
inheritance. A dowry is, in a sense, the reverse of a
bride price.
drop of blood criterion
(for race classification)
see
hypodescent.
dumb barter
barter
without direct contact between the traders. Individuals from one group
leave trade goods at a neutral location on the edge of their territory
and then leave. Sometime later, members of the other community pick up
the goods and leave something in exchange. The first group then returns
and either picks up the things that were left by the strangers or leaves
them until additions or substitutions are made that are acceptable.
In the past, dumb-barter of this sort occurred in parts of West
Africa, Northern Scandinavia, India, Sri Lanka, Sumatra, Timor, New
Guinea, and the Amazon Basin of South America.
Dumb barter is also known as "silent trade"
and "depot trade."
-
Ebonics
egalitarian
referring
to societies in which all people are equal in terms of economic and
political rights. Foraging bands
are the most egalitarian societies. However, even in these societies, there
are differences based on age and sometimes gender.
- ego
(in reference to diagramming kinship)
- in a kinship diagram, the individual to
whom all relationships are referred.
emic
categories
referring to the
categorization of things according to the way in which members of a
society classify their own world. In other words, this is the way their
culture and language divide up reality. Such emic categories generally
differ from culture to culture and provide valuable insights into the
perceptions and world view of other peoples. Discovering, recording,
and analyzing emic categories is the task of
ethnoscience. See
etic categories.
eminent domain
the right of a
government to take legal possession of private property for public use. In
most Western countries, the property owner is financially compensated for
the loss based on what is considered to be fair market value. An example of
eminent domain is a government taking someone's house and land in order to
build a road through the property.
enculturation
the process of being
socialized to a
particular culture. This includes learning the language, customs,
biases, and values of the culture.
Through enculturation an individual learns the statuses, roles,
rules, and values of his or her own culture. The most intensive
period of enculturation is usually during early childhood, but the
process continues throughout life.
- a disease that is always present in a
community, usually at a low, more or less constant frequency.
Malaria, arthritis, and high blood pressure are examples. See
hyperendemic.
endogamy
a marriage
partner selection rule requiring that marriage be to someone within
a defined social group such as an
extended family,
religious community, economic class, ethnic or age group. Selection
is always further restricted by
exogamy rules.
epidemic
the
occurrence of a disease in a population in which it appears, rapidly spreads
between people, reaches a high frequency, and then subsides. Contagious
diseases such as influenza, measles, and AIDS follow this pattern.
Epidemics usually appear seasonally as a
result of changing human interaction patterns and changes in the
environment. See pandemic.
- the field of medical research that
studies the causes of diseases and how to cure or control them.
Epidemiologists also track the frequency and geographic
distribution of diseases over time. In addition, they study the
causal relationships between diseases.
equestrian
foraging
a
specialized subsistence
pattern in which horses are used extensively in hunting large game
animals. Equestrian foragers evolved in only two areas of the world--the
Great Plains of North America and the sparse grasslands of Southern
Argentina. In both cases,
pedestrian foragers
acquired horses from Spanish settlers in the early 17th century. Over
several generations, horse breeding and riding skills were honed. This
resulted in a revolutionary change in these Native American societies. The
horse became the principle mode of transportation and dramatically increased
hunting success in the pursuit of large animals. These societies became
larger, more mobile, and were now able to travel over larger areas
throughout the year. Horses allowed them to effectively follow the seasonal
migrations of large herbivores over hundreds of miles. In North American
the prey of choice was the bison and in South America it was the
guanaco.
("Equestrian" is derived from the Latin word equus meaning
horse.)
- Eskimo
naming system
- a
bilateral
descent based kin naming system in which members of the
nuclear family
are given terms of reference based only on their gender and
generation. Aunts (3) and uncles (4) are distinguished from
parents (1 = father and 2 = mother) and separated by gender.
The spouses of aunts and uncles may also be given these kin
terms. All cousins are lumped together with one kin term (7)
without regard to gender. No kin name distinction is made
between uncles, aunts, and cousins with regards to side of the
family.
-
ethnic group
a category or group of people considered to
be significantly different from others in terms of cultural
(dialect, religion, traditions, etc.) and sometimes physical
characteristics (skin color, body shape, etc.). Commonly recognized
American ethnic groups include American Indians, Jews, Latinos,
Chinese, African Americans ("blacks"), European Americans
("whites"), etc.
ethnicity
ethnic symbol
selected traits used as symbolic badges of
identity to emphasize distinctness from other ethnic groups.
Dialect, religion, and style of dress are common ethnic symbols.
Biological characteristics, such as skin color and body shape, may
be used as ethnic symbols as well.
-
ethnocentrism
- the deep felt belief or feeling that your
culture is superior to all others. Being fond of your own
way of life and condescending or even hostile toward other
cultures is normal for all people. Alien culture traits
are often viewed as being not just different but less sensible
and even "unnatural."
This results
in the interpretation of other people in terms of one's own
cultural values and traditions. An example is people from
monogamous societies condemning polygamy as being "unnatural"
and immoral. Ethnocentrism is universal and normal but not
necessarily morally defensible or desirable because it prevents
understanding other cultures. It also interferes with meaningful
intercultural communication.
See cultural
relativity.
ethnocide
the act
or attempt to systematically destroy another people's ethnicity or
culture. Usually the term ethnocide is applied to intentional acts
resulting in culture
death. The legalized "kidnapping" of Native American children
so that they could be educated as Europeanized Canadians and
Americans during the late 19th and early 20th centuries is an
example of ethnocide. See
genocide.
-
ethnography
- anthropological research in which
one learns about the
culture of another society through
fieldwork and first hand observation in that
society. Ethnography is also the term used to refer to books or
monographs describing what was learned about the culture of a society.
-
ethnology
- an anthropological study that systematically
compares similar cultures.
An example of an ethnological study
would be a comparison of what cultures are like in societies that have
economies based on hunting and gathering rather than agriculture.
The data for this sort of ethnology would come from the existing
ethnographies about these
peoples. In other words, an ethnology is essentially a synthesis of
the work of many ethnographers.
- the scientific study of traditional uses
of plants and other organisms for medical purposes.
Ethnopharmacology is a specialization within ethnobiology, which
is an interdisciplinary field of research carried out by people
trained in cultural anthropology, biology, and medicine.
ethnoscience
the field of
anthropology that tries to learn about how people in different cultures
categorize things in their environment. The focus is on
emic categories.
This data provides important insights into the interests, concerns, and
values of cultures.
etic
categories
- referring to the
classification of things according to some external system of analysis
brought in by a visitor to another society. This is the approach of
biology in using the Linnaean classification system to define new
species. It assumes that ultimately, there is an objective reality and
that is more important than cultural perceptions of it. See
emic categories.
exogamy
a
marriage partner selection rule requiring that marriage be with
someone outside of a defined social group such as one's
nuclear family.
Selection is usually further restricted by
endogamy rules.
-
extended family
- two or
more nuclear
families tied together by bonds of descent. Usually an
extended family contains living relatives from three or more
generations.
family of
orientation
family of
procreation
feuding
prolonged hostility and occasional fighting
between individuals and their supporters. It is a universal form of
aggression that mostly occurs between members of the same society,
though it can occur between people from separate societies as well.
It is caused by a desire for revenge for a perceived prior wrong.
Usually, both sides in feuds believe that they have been wronged and
seek to settle the score. Inherent in feuds is a failure in
communication between the feuding parties and the belief that there
needs to be "an eye for an eye." Without adequate retribution,
there is minimally a loss of face for the families involved.
fictive
kinship
a socially recognized link between
individuals, created as an expedient for dealing with special
circumstances, such as the bond between a godmother and her godchild.
Fictive kinship bonds are based on friendship and other personal
relationships rather than marriage and descent.
foragers
people who
live in more or less isolated, small societies and obtain their food by
foraging wild plants and hunting wild animals. Foragers generally have a
passive dependence on what the environment contains. They do not plant
crops and the only domesticated animals that they usually have are dogs.
Most foraging societies do not establish permanent settlements. Rather,
they have relatively temporary encampments with tents or other easily
constructed dwellings. The length of time that they stay in any one
location is largely determined by the availability of resources. Foragers
are also referred to as hunters and gatherers.
formal education
structured and directed teaching and learning
primarily under the control and direction of adult teachers who are
professional "knowers." Formal education is usually what happens in
a classroom. See
informal education.
- gender
- sexual identity as male or female.
genealogy
the family history, or record of descent, of
an individual from his or her ancestors.
generalized reciprocity
gift giving without the expectation of an immediate
return. It is understood that at some time in the future there will be an
appropriate repayment. See reciprocity.
general purpose money
a portable, arbitrarily valued medium of exchange.
All market economies today use this form of money. It can have a variety of
physical forms--e.g., coins, paper money, or bank checks. It can also be
simply a digital transmission from one computer to another that occurs with
the use of credit cards or the electronic transfer of funds. The key point
about general purpose money is that anything that is for sale can be bought
with it--everyone accepts it. General purpose money is also referred to as
"standardized currency." See
special purpose money.
genocide
the act or attempt to systematically kill all
members of an ethnic group or culture. The Nazi extermination of
Jews and gypsies by the millions before and during World War II is
an example of genocide. See
ethnocide.
- globalism
- the progressive emergence of a single
worldwide economic system and the simultaneous reduction in
global cultural and political differences. A presumed result of
globalization would be the merging of previously separate
political entities and the growth in power and prestige of
international institutions. Those who advocate globalism generally
believe that ethnocentrism,
nationalism, and
tribalism are obstacles that
must be overcome.
-
god or goddess
- a powerful supernatural being with
an individual identity and recognizable attributes. Another term
for a god is a deity
.
Like spirits, gods have
individual identities and recognizable attributes (gods are male and
goddess are female). However, gods and goddesses are more powerful
than spirits and other lesser supernatural beings--they can
effectively alter all of nature and human fortunes. As a result,
they are commonly worshipped and requests are made of them to help
in times of need.
godparent
a person who sponsors a child and assumes
some parental responsibility for its upbringing. A godparent shares
this responsibility with the "real" parents. A godparent is a
fictive kinsman
who may be either a godmother or a godfather to a godchild.
grammar
the part of
language analysis that is concerned with how the sounds are used to make
sense. Grammar consists of
morphology and
syntax.
hallucinogen
a mind
altering drug that can cause profound hallucinations or an altered state
of awareness. Most hallucinogens used for religious purposes by
shamans and others are
derived from plants.
Hawaiian
naming system
a kin naming system in which relatives are
distinguished only by generation and gender. This results in just 4
different kin terms of reference. Ego's father and all male
relatives in his generation are referred to by the same kin term
(1). Likewise, ego's mother and all female relatives in her
generation have the same kin term (2). All brothers and male
cousins are linked by giving them the same kin term (3). Sisters
and all female cousins are also referred to by the same term (4).
-
herbivorous
- eating
only vegetable foods. Animals that have this sort of diet are
herbivores or vegetarians.
heterogeneous
society
a society consisting of many different ethnic
and/or "racial" groups, social classes, languages and/or dialects,
and cultural traditions. The U.S. and Canada are heterogeneous
societies. See
homogenous society.
heterosexual
an
individual who is sexually and/or emotionally attracted by members
of the opposite gender from himself or herself. Heterosexuality
generally refers to sexual interaction between members of the
opposite gender. See bisexual and
homosexual.
-
hierarchical society
- a
society that is divided into unequal social classes and individual
statuses. There commonly is a ranking of classes and statuses in
hierarchical societies such that those that are at the top of the
ranking have greater power and wealth. Large intensive agriculture
based societies typically have a social and political pyramid with an
elite ruling class at the top and the majority of the people at the
bottom.
Hispanic
- referring to Spanish and/or Latin
American cultural traditions. In the
U.S., Portuguese speaking Brazilians also are often considered
Hispanics for official census
recording purposes while people from Spain and Portugal are
frequently excluded. See
Latino.
holism
the
view that human existence can be adequately understood only as a
multifaceted whole. Human beliefs and actions must be seen in terms of
their interrelatedness with all other aspects of culture, human biology,
social interaction, and environmental influences.
homogenous
society
- a society that predominantly or entirely
consists of people who share the same ethnicity/race, language,
and cultural traditions. Most small-scale societies are
homogenous. A few large-scale ones, like Japan, are as well.
See
heterogeneous society.
homosexual
- an
individual who is sexually and/or emotionally attracted by
members of his or her own gender. Homosexuality generally refers
to sexual interaction between members of the same gender. In
North America, female homosexuals are often referred to as
"lesbians" while males are known as "gays."
See bisexual and
heterosexual.
-
horticulturalists
- people
who obtain most of their food by low intensity farming.
This
subsistence pattern involves at least part time planting and tending of
domesticated food plants. Pigs, chickens, or other relatively small
domesticated animals are often raised for food and prestige. Many
horticultural societies supplement their farming subsistence base with
occasional hunting and gathering of wild plants and animals. They
usually practice slash and burn field clearing methods and do not add
additional fertilizer or irrigate.
Multi-cropping is
common. They often have a partial reliance on foraging for wild foods.
Their societies are usually larger and more sedentary than those of
foragers but still are at a
low technological level and relatively small-scale.
household
- a
residential group usually, but not always, consisting of members
of the same family.
humoral pathology
a
naturalistic
medical system based on the idea that our bodies have four important
fluids or humors--blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. Each humor
is thought to have its own "complexion." Blood is hot and wet. Phlegm
is cold and wet. Black bile is cold and dry. Yellow bile is hot and
dry. These complexions have nothing to do with actual temperature and
humidity. In addition to bodily fluids, three internal organs are
considered highly important in humoral pathology. Each one has its own
characteristic complexion. The heart is dry a
